Guidelines for Informing Policy via Data

CHAPTER 2 - THE POLICY PROCESS: CREATING POLICY WITHIN GOVERNMENTS AND OTHER TYPES OF ORGANISATIONS (page 3)

2.3.1 Who Makes Policy and How?

There are several models that explain the processes of decision-making and policy formulation, examining who determines public policy and how. Some of the most common models are discussed below [4].

2.3.1.1 The Elite Model

The elite model of decision-making is based on the idea that almost all political power is held by a relatively small and wealthy group of people – an elite – that shares similar values and interests. This elite uses its power to advance its common interests and policy preferences, usually to the detriment of the rest of society. Consequently, it is in a position to dictate the main goals and objectives of all important government policy, but not always its practical measures and details. This elite is seen as inherently conservative, and ready to sanction only incremental changes in policy.

2.3.1.2 The Pluralist Model

This theoretical model of how policy decisions are made assumes that the power is "plural," i.e., that it is broadly distributed among many different groups in society that compete to control policy. This model is based on the belief that politics are the result of struggles between these competing interests, though it is not possible to identify a particular group as occupying a constant dominant position.

In this model, decision-making consists largely of bargaining and compromise between multiple competing power centres. Such an approach tends to view government not so much as an initiator of policies, but rather as a mediator between different group interests, allowing for compromise and agreements to be reached, and policies and programmes to be developed.

2.3.1.3 The Technocratic Model

This model describes a decision-making and policy formulation system where technocrats, or experts, have a predominant role. The technocratic approach is based on the notion that those people with the power to make decisions and make policy do not necessarily understand the problems confronting them, nor do they systematically have solutions to solve them. The process to answer the needs of society is thus entrusted to technocrats and bureaucrats with the relevant expertise for "scientific" policy implementation.

The above-mentioned models of policy-making refer essentially to its actors. Now we will present two approaches of decision-making that concentrate more on how policy-making and policy decisions are reached than on who was involved.

2.3.1.4 The Rational-Comprehensive Model

The rational-comprehensive model of policy-making is based on the assumption that policies are selected and implemented after a thorough analysis of all alternatives. This analysis is based on clearly defined and objective criteria, and is aimed at achieving the most effective ends. Alternatives are invariably compared and assessed in relation to goals and costs, and the best option is then chosen.

The main criticism of this model is that it is often very costly in time and resources, and takes for granted that perfect information both exists and is available.

2.3.1.5 The Incrementalism Model

The main concept behind this model is that policies evolve gradually. Decision-makers are seen to implement modest policy changes that only slightly, if at all, affect the situation. This model emerged as a reaction to rationalist theories and is based on the idea that it is impossible, because of time and financial constraints, to look at all alternatives exhaustively before making a decision. Here, decision-makers only make a limited comparison of policy alternatives with what is already in place; when they do select an alternative, it tends to be only a slight variation on the current policy.

Different models can be seen as more or less democratic, efficient, participatory, etc., and involving varying numbers of actors, whether politicians, experts, pressure groups or the media. Particular individuals might favour distinct models. Beyond the virtues or defects of such models, policy must be based on correct and relevant assumptions and needs. Before analysing the latter aspect in detail, it is important to underline that policy-making is highly context-dependent.

4. See Johnson, P.M., A Glossary of Political Economy Terms, Department of Political Science, Auburn, 1994-2004.